Bromatological variability and nutritional quality index in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) landraces in Mexico

Lily Lorena Luna-Castellanos, Alejandra Soto-Estrada, Isaac Meneses-Márquez, Oscar Burbano-Figueroa, Octavio Ruiz-Rosado, Eliseo García-Pérez

Abstract


Background. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an important staple crop in Mexico’s traditional farming systems, and its genetic diversity offers largely unexplored potential. Understanding its bromatological variability is essential for designing strategies to integrate cassava into short food supply chains and differentiated value chains. Objective. To characterize the bromatological composition of Mexican cassava roots and to develop nutritional quality indices. Methodology. Twelve-month-old roots from 14 landraces were evaluated. Samples, processed in triplicate under a completely randomized design (CRD), were analyzed for moisture, dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), crude fiber (CF), ash, and nitrogen-free extract (NFE). Data were subjected to multivariate analysis (PCA, hierarchical clustering), followed by ANOVA and Tukey’s test to compare groups. A nutritional quality index (NQI) was calculated based on PCA loadings. Results. PCA distinguished two bromatological axes: an energy–industrial axis associated with DM–NFE and a lipid–protein axis dominated by fat and CP. In addition, PCA indicated a compositional trade-off between the energy fraction (DM–NFE) and the mineral fraction (ash). Landraces MMVER03 and MMVER04 showed the highest NQI values, combining a balanced set of energy- and nutrient-related attributes, positioning them as dual-purpose materials with both food and agroindustrial potential. Implications. The observed variability is linked to genotype-environment interaction and metabolic differences among landraces; therefore, multi-environment testing is recommended to disentangle genetic and environmental effects. These findings underscore the value of incorporating bromatological analyses into characterization and selection programs as a basis for strengthening short supply chains, culinary innovation, and agroindustrial applications. Conclusions. The bromatological diversity of traditional Mexican cassava landraces is expressed as distinct combinations of proximal components, reflecting meaningful genotypic contrasts. The NQI synthesized this variability and supported the pre-selection of landraces with overall performance (particularly for human or animal consumption), avoiding single-trait approaches. These results provide technical criteria for the functional valorization of cassava and for designing selection strategies aligned with sustainable food and agroindustrial systems.

Keywords


starch; proximate analysis; biplot; carbohydrates; plant genetic resources.

Full Text:

PDF

References


Adu, M.O., 2020. Causal shoot and root system traits to variability and plasticity in juvenile cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) plants in response to reduced soil moisture. Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants, 26(9), pp. 1799-1814. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-020-00865-4

Alamu, E.O., Maziya-Dixon, B., Sibeso, C., Parkes, E. and Dixon, A.G., 2020. Variations of macro-and microelements in yellow-fleshed cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) genotypes as a function of storage root portion, harvesting time, and sampling method. Applied Sciences, 10(16), p. 5396. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10165396

Allem, A.C., 2002. The origins and taxonomy of cassava. En: Hillocks, R. J. and Thresh, J. M. (eds.) Cassava: biology, production and utilization. Wallingford: CABI, pp. 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851995243.0001

Amelework, A.B., Bairu, M.W., Marx, R., Laing, M. and Venter, S.L., 2023. Genotype Environment Interaction and Stability Analysis of Selected Cassava Cultivars in South Africa. Plants, 12, p. 2490. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12132490

Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC)., 2016. Official methods of analysis (20th ed.). Washington, D.C., USA: AOAC. https://doi.org/10.5740/jaoacint.SMPR2016.002

Abera, S. and Rakshit, S.K., 2003. Processing technology comparison of physicochemical and functional properties of cassava starch extracted from fresh root and dry chips. Starch - Stärke, 55(7), pp. 287-296. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.200390072

Bayata, A., 2019. Review on Nutritional Value of Cassava for Use as a Staple Food. Science Journal of Analytical Chemistry, 7(4), pp. 83-91. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sjac.20190704.12

Bilate-Daemo, B., Yohannes, D.B., Beyene, T.M. and Abtew, W.G., 2022. Biochemical Analysis of Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) Accessions in Southwest of Ethiopia. Journal of Food Quality, 2022, p. 9904103. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9904103

Boakye Peprah, B., Parkes, E.Y., Harrison, O.A., van Biljon, A., Steiner-Asiedu, M. and Labuschagne, M.T., 2020. Proximate Composition, Cyanide Content, and Carotenoid Retention after Boiling of Provitamin A-Rich Cassava Grown in Ghana. Foods, 9(12), 1800, pp. 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9121800

Borku, A.W., 2025. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz): its nutritional composition insights for future research and development in Ethiopia. Discover Sustainability, 6(1), p. 404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-00996-2

Burns, A., Gleadow, R., Cliff, J., Zacarias, A. and Cavagnaro, T., 2010. Cassava: the drought, war and famine crop in a changing world. Sustainability, 2(11), pp. 3572-3607. https://doi.org/10.3390/su2113572

Cadavid, L.F., 2002. Suelo y fertilización para la yuca. En: Ospina, A.M. y Ceballos, C.E. (eds.) La yuca en el tercer milenio: Sistemas modernos de producción, procesamiento, utilización y comercialización. CIAT/FIDA, pp. 76-103. Disponible en: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/54117

Cai, J., Xue, J., Zhu, W., Luo, X., Lu, X., Xue, M. and Chen, S., 2023. Integrated metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses reveals sugar transport and starch accumulation in two specific germplasms of Manihot esculenta Crantz. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(8), p. 7236. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24087236

Ceballos, H., Hershey, C., Iglesias, C. and Zhang, X., 2021. Fifty years of a public cassava breeding program: evolution of breeding objectives, methods, and decision-making processes. Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 134(8), pp. 2335-2353. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00122-021-03852-9

Ceballos, H., Iglesias, C.A., Pérez, J.C. and Dixon, A.G.O., 2004. Cassava breeding: opportunities and challenges. Plant Molecular Biology, 56, pp. 503-516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11103-004-5010-5

Ceballos, H., Morante, N., Sánchez, T., Ortiz, D., Aragon, I., Chavez, A.L. and Dufour, D., 2013. Rapid cycling recurrent selection for increased carotenoids content in cassava roots. Crop Science, 53(6), pp. 2342-2351. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2013.02.0123

Ceballos, H., Sánchez, T., Chávez, A.L., Iglesias, C., Debouck, D., Mafla, G. and Tohme, J., 2006. Variation in crude protein content in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) roots. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 19, pp. 589-593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2005.11.001

Codex Alimentarius Commission., 2003. Standard for sweet cassava (CXS 238-2003). Rome: FAO/WHO. Disponible en: https://n9.cl/zub9x

Charles, A.L., Sriroth, K. and Huang, T.C., 2005. Proximate composition, mineral contents, hydrogen cyanide and phytic acid of 5 cassava genotypes. Food Chemistry, 92(4), pp. 615-620. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.08.058

Chávez, A.L., Sánchez, T., Jaramillo, G., Bedoya, J.M., Echeverry, J., Bolaños, E.A. and Iglesias, C.A., 2005. Variation of quality traits in cassava roots evaluated in landraces and improved clones. Euphytica, 143(1), pp. 125-133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10681-005-3057-2

Chen, L., Chen, R., Atwa, E.M., Mabrouk, M., Jiang, H., Mou, X. and Ma, X., 2024. Nutritional Quality Assessment of Miscellaneous Cassava Tubers Using Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis. Foods, 13(12), p. 1861. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13121861

Chimphepo, L., Monjerezi, M., Alamu, E.O., Ntawuruhunga, P. and Saka, J.D., 2022. Effects of genotype by environment interaction on agronomic and functional flour properties among cassava genotypes targeted for industrial use. Annals of Agricultural Sciences, 67(2), pp. 147-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2022.08.001

Chisenga, S.M., Workneh, T.S., Bultosa, G. and Alimi, B.A., 2019. Progress in research and applications of cassava flour and starch: a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 56(6), pp. 2799-2813. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-019-03814-6

Del Rosario-Arellano, J.L., Meneses-Márquez, I., Leyva-Ovalle, O.R., Aguilar-Rivera, N., Bolio-López, G.I. and Andrés-Meza, P., 2020. Morphoagronomic and industrial performance of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) germplasm for the production of starch and solid byproducts. AIMS Agriculture and Food, 5(4), pp. 617-634. https://doi.org/10.3934/agrfood.2020.4.617

Del Rosario-Arellano, J.L., Serna-Lagunes, R., Andrés-Meza, P., Leyva-Ovalle, O.R., Cebada-Merino, M. and Capetillo-Burela, A.C., 2024. El Estado actual y condiciones ecogeográficas de Manihot esculenta Crantz en la región Las Montañas, Veracruz. Ecosistemas y Recursos Agropecuarios, 11(3), pp. 1-13. https://doi.org/10.19136/era.a11n3.3975

Diario Oficial de la Federación (DOF)., 1978. Norma Mexicana NMX-F-066-S-1978. Determinación de cenizas en alimentos. Ciudad de México, México: Secretaría de Economía. https://www.dof.gob.mx/normasOficiales.php#gsc.tab=0

Diario Oficial de la Federación (DOF)., 1978. Norma Mexicana NMX-F-090-S-1978. Determinación de fibra cruda en alimentos. Ciudad de México, México: Secretaría de Economía. https://es.scribd.com/doc/168091011/NMX-F-090-S-1978-Fibra-en-Alimentos

Diario Oficial de la Federación (DOF)., 2018. Norma Mexicana NMX-F-615-NORMEX-2018. Determinación de extracto etéreo en alimentos. Ciudad de México, México: Secretaría de Economía. https://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5565079&fecha=05/07/2019#gsc.tab=0

Díaz-Echeverría, V.F., May-Ávila, Á., Santos-Ricalde, R.H. and Segura-Correa, J.C., 2025. Effect of feeding Manihot esculenta Crantz on egg production in laying hens. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 28, p.135. http://doi.org/10.56369/tsaes.6240

Drapal, M., Ovalle Rivera, T.M., Becerra Lopez-Lavalle, L.A. and Fraser, P.D., 2024. Composición y secuestro de carotenoides en raíces de yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz). PLoS ONE, 19(11), p. e0312517. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312517

Espitia Montes, A.A., Pérez Cantero, S., Regino Hernández, S.M., Támara Morelos, R.E., García Herazo, J.L., Martínez Figueroa, R.R. and García Peña, J.A., 2022. Manual para la producción y escalamiento de semilla de yuca (Manihot esculenta) de calidad. Mosquera, Colombia: Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria- AGROSAVIA. https://doi.org/10.21930/agrosavia.manual.7405569

Fakir, M.S.A., Sarker, B.C., Hossain, M.I. and Islam, M.N., 2012. Starch and flour extraction and nutrient composition of cassava tuber. Journal of Bangladesh Agricultural University, 10(1), pp. 77-82. https://www.banglajol.info/index.php/JBAU/article/view/14698/10441

Fanelli, N.S., Torres-Mendoza, L.J., Abelilla, J.J. and Stein, H.H., 2023. Chemical composition of cassava-based feed ingredients from South-East Asia. Animal Bioscience, 36(6), pp. 908-919. https://doi.org/10.5713/ab.22.0360

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).2021. FAOSTAT Statistical Database. Consultado el 20 de agosto del 2025. Disponible en: https://www.fao.org/faostat/es/#data/QCL

Fukuda, W. M. G., Guevara, C. L., Kawuki, R. and Ferguson, M. E., 2010. Selected morphological and agronomic descriptors for the characterization of cassava. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria. https://www.scirp.org/reference/referencespapers?referenceid=1834215

García, E., 2004. Modificaciones al Sistema de Clasificación Climática de Köppen. Disponible en: http://www.publicaciones.igg.unam.mx/index.php/ig/catalog/view/83/82/251-1

Howeler, R.H., Lutaladio, N. and Thomas, G., 2013. Save and grow: cassava: a guide to sustainable production intensification. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, pp. 87-97. Disponible en: https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i3278eispo

Jansen van Rijssen, F.W., Morris, E. J. and Eloff, J.N., 2013. Food Safety: Importance of Composition for Assessing Genetically Modified Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Journal of Agricultural and Food chemistry, 61(35), p. 8333-8339. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf401153x

Jolliffe, I., 2005. Principal Component Analysis. In: Everitt, B. S. and Howell, D. C. eds. Encyclopedia of Statistics in Behavioral Science. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/0470013192.bsa501

Lambebo, T. and Deme, T., 2022. Evaluation of Nutritional Potential and Effect of Processing on Improving Nutrient Content of Cassava (Mannihot esculenta Crantz) Root and Leaves. BioRxiv, 2022-02, pp. 1-39. https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.02.04.479097

Liang, Q., Dong, M., Gu, M., Zhang, P., Ma, Q. and He, B., 2022. MeNPF4.5 improves cassava nitrogen use efficiency and yield by regulating nitrogen uptake and allocation. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13, p. 866855. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.866855

Meneses, M.I., Vásquez Hernández, A., Rosas González, X. and Becerra Leor, E.N., 2014. Contenido de materia seca y almidón en clones de yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Revista Biológico Agropecuaria Tuxpan, 2(1), pp. 107-110. https://doi.org/10.47808/revistabioagro.v2i1.268

Mohidin, S.R.N.S.P., Moshawih, S., Hermansyah, A., Asmuni, M.I., Shafqat, N. and Ming, L.C., 2023. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz): A systematic review for the pharmacological activities, traditional uses, nutritional values, and phytochemistry. Journal of Evidence-based integrative Medicine, 28, pp. 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515690X231206227

Montagnac, J.A., Davis, C.R. and Tanumihardjo, S.A., 2009. Nutritional value of cassava for use as a staple food and recent advances for improvement. Comprehensive reviews in food science and food safety, 8(3), pp. 181-194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2009.00077.x

Mutoni, C.K., Nzuve, F.M., Miano, D. W., Kivuva, B.M., Obare, I.J., Shah, T.M. and Ferguson, M.E. 2023. Genetic diversity of cassava landraces and documentation of farmer’s knowledge in Lamu, Kenya. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 71, pp. 2189-2201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-023-01710-9

Nduwumuremyi, A., Melis, R., Shanahan, P. and Asiimwe, T., 2016. Participatory appraisal of preferred traits, production constraints, and postharvest challenges for cassava farmers in Rwanda. Food Security, 8(2), pp. 375-388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-016-0556-z

Pérez, D., Mora, R. and López-Carrascal, C., 2019. Conservación de la diversidad de yuca en los sistemas tradicionales de cultivo de la Amazonía. Acta Biológica Colombiana, 24(2), pp. 202-212. https://doi.org/10.15446/abc.v24n2.75428

R Core Team., 2020. R: A language and environment for statistical computing (version 4.4.3). R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/

Rodríguez Henao, E., Garavito Morales, L.V., Osorio Cardona, Ó., Aguilera Arango, G.A. and Cañar Serna, D.Y., 2021. Manual técnico para la propagación masiva de semilla vegetativa de yuca por miniestacas en campo. Mosquera, Colombia: Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria - AGROSAVIA. https://doi.org/10.21930/agrosavia.manual.7405057

Rojas, J., 2007. Evaluación de seis variedades de yuca en condiciones de riego y secano en el estado Portuguesa, Venezuela. Revista UDO Agrícola, 7(1), pp. 23-31. https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/4263/426339669013.pdf

Rosas-González, X., Meneses Márquez, I., Becerra Leor, E. N. and Vásquez Hernández, A., 2014. Efecto de la posición de estacas sobre el rendimiento de raíz de yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz.) en Veracruz. Revista Biológico Agropecuaria Tuxpan, 2(1), pp. 172-177. https://doi.org/10.47808/revistabioagro.v2i1.283

Sánchez, T., Ceballos, H., Dufour, D., Ortiz, D., Morante, N., Calle, F. and Davrieux, F. 2014. Prediction of carotenoids, cyanide and dry matter contents in fresh cassava root using NIRS and Hunter color techniques. Food chemistry, 151, pp. 444-451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.11.081

Sánchez, T., Chavez, A.L., Ceballos, H., Rodriguez?Amaya, D.B., Nestel, P. and Ishitani, M., 2006. Reduction or delay of post?harvest physiological deterioration in cassava roots with higher carotenoid content. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 86(4), pp. 634-639. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2371

Scaria, S.S., Balasubramanian, B., Meyyazhagan, A., Gangwar, J., Jaison, J.P., Kurian, J.T. and Joseph, K.S., 2024. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)—A potential source of phytochemicals, food, and nutrition—An updated review. eFood, 5(1), p. e127. https://doi.org/10.1002/efd2.127

Schaal, B.A., Olsen, K.M. and Carvalho, L.J., 2006. Evolution, domestication, and agrobiodiversity in the tropical crop cassava. En: Darwin's harvest: New approaches to the origins, evolution, and conservation of crops. Columbia University Press, pp. 269-284. Disponible en: http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/15085/1/Timothy%20J.%20Motley.pdf#page=280

Sheela, M.N., Radhika, V.S., John, K.S. and Abraham, K., 2008. Variation in crude protein, dry matter and starch in inbred and backcross lines of cassava. Journal of Root Crops, 34(2), pp. 115-119. https://n9.cl/nwsdgu

Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera (SIAP)., 2024. Anuario estadístico de la producción agrícola. Secretaría de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural. Consultado el 30 de enero del 2026. Disponible en: https://nube.siap.gob.mx/cierreagricola/

Uchechukwu-Agua, A.D., Caleb, O.J. and Opara, U.L., 2015. Postharvest Handling and Storage of Fresh Cassava Root and Products: a Review. Food Bioprocess Technol, 8, pp. 729-748. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-015-1478-z

Uchendu, K., Njoku, D. N., Paterne, A., Rabbi, I. Y., Dzidzienyo, D., Tongoona, P., Offei, S. and Egesi, C., 2021. Genome-Wide Association Study of Root Mealiness and Other Texture-Associated Traits in Cassava. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, p. 770434. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.770434

Xiao, L., Cao, S., Shang, X., Xie, X., Zeng, W., Lu, L. and Yan, H., 2021. Metabolomic and transcriptomic profiling reveals distinct nutritional properties of cassavas with different flesh colors. Food Chemistry: Molecular Sciences, 2, p. 100016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochms.2021.100016

Yam-Chale, E., Díaz-Echeverría, V., Chavarría-Díaz, A., Oros-Ortega, I., Chay-Canul, A., Cen-Hoy, A. and Casanova-Lugo, F., 2018. Forage and tuber yield and nutritional composition of Manihot esculenta Crantz meal with organic fertilization. Ecosistemas y Recursos Agropecuarios, 5(13), pp. 127-132. https://doi.org/10.19136/era.a5n13.1263

Yeoh, H.H. and Truong, V.D., 1996. Protein contents, amino acid compositions and nitrogen-to-protein conversion factors for cassava roots. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 70, pp. 51-54. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740700109

Wang, D., Liu, Q., Xie, X., Zhang, J., Xiao, J. and Wang, W., 2025. Genomic-Wide Association Markers and Candidate Genes for the High-Protein Trait in Storage Roots of Cassava (Manihot esculenta). Plants, 14(20), p. 3162. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14203162

White, P.J. and Broadley, M.R., 2009. Biofortification of crops with seven mineral elements often lacking in human diets-iron, zinc, copper, calcium, magnesium, selenium and iodine. New Phytologist, 182(1), pp. 49-84. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02738.x

Zainuddin, I.M., Fathoni, A., Sudarmonowati, E., Beeching, J.R., Gruissem, W. and Vanderschuren, H., 2018. Cassava post-harvest physiological deterioration: From triggers to symptoms. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 142, pp. 115-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2017.09.004




URN: http://www.revista.ccba.uady.mx/urn:ISSN:1870-0462-tsaes.v29i2.66863

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.56369/tsaes.6686

Bookmark and Share


Copyright (c) 2026 Lily Lorena Luna-Castellanos, Alejandra Soto-Estrada, Isaac Meneses-Márquez, Óscar Alberto Burbano-Figueroa, Octavio Ruiz-Rosado, Eliseo García-Pérez

Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.